All Hail the Queens: The Spanish Queen and the French Mistress

[Left: Unknown. Katherine of Aragon (c. 1520), National Portrait Gallery, London; Right: Édouard Cibot. Anne Boleyn in the Tower (1835), Musée Rolin, Autun]

Take a look at these two portraits nearly three centuries apart. One is of a passive Spanish queen during the height of the Renaissance in Tudor England. Another is a Romantic painting of her successor at the moment of her own demise. Both provide viewers a common image of their respective figures. Catherine of Aragon has been described as dour, bitter, and ditched in favor of the sexy, vivacious Anne Boleyn.[1] She is the Spanish tart, but this is far from the case. Anne has been defaulted to “the king’s whore,” a woman of vanity and ambition, Frenchified by her time on the continent.[2] These two portraits tell contemporary audiences of the Spanish queen and the French mistress, especially in their gowns. Rich gold and red, almost like Henry’s own wardrobe, for Catherine, and soft pastels for Anne. Look at the queens together, as foils, yes, but also as examples of regionalism in fashion.

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Spanish Queen -

[Right: promotional photo of Catherine of Aragon (Showtime, 2007)]

Born to the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand II (r.1479-1516) and Isabella of Castile, Catherine received an education in Latin, French, and philosophy. The Church and humanist learning were deeply instilled in Catherine from a young age. Betrothed to Arthur, prince of Wales, son of Henry VII (r. 1485-1509), the sixteen-year-old Infanta married the prince in 1501.[3] He died six months later leaving the marriage unconsummated. The king arranged a betrothal with his remaining son. Two weeks before his coronation in June 1509, Henry VIII married Catherine.[4] Beautiful, intelligent, and enticingly older than the king, Catherine lived out the early years of their marriage in peace.

Until she miscarried twice, bore a stillborn daughter, and her two infant sons died shortly after birth, that is.[5] The only surviving child was Mary, born in 1516. Henry began to sour when prospects of an heir dimmed.[6] He perused the Bible, finding an Old Testament verse to be a prudent answer to his lack of a successor.[7] His brother’s wife was unable to bear him any children (and he seemed to have forgotten Mary). The matter of annulment pitted England against Rome and the Holy Roman Empire.

Catherine understood that Henry wanted a divorce to be with Anne Boleyn. While they rarely shared a bed anymore, he attended ceremonies with her, respected her to a degree, but simply wished to be free of her. He said he wanted no quarrel but quarrel he did.[8] Catherine’s only solace at court became her Spanish entourage. Her own daughter was forbidden from seeing her.[9] In 1533, Henry rejected the authority of Rome and declared himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England. His archbishop issued the annulment. Exiled from court, Catherine carried out her life in a number of castles, refusing to be addressed as anything but queen. She found solace in prayer, needlework, reading, and smuggled letters from her daughter. Yet sickness plagued her; she died at Kimbolton Castle in January 1536.[10]

[Right: promotional photo of Catherine of Aragon (Showtime, 2007)]

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French Mistress -

[Right: episode still of Anne Boleyn (Showtime, 2007)]

While her father served as ambassador to Margaret of Austria's court in the Low Countries (1512) and Francis I's court in France (1518-21), Anne Boleyn (c. 1501-36) served as a maid of honor, learning about French fashion, language, music, dance, and the more seductive arts.[11] After a decade on the continent, Anne returned to join the entourage of Catherine of Aragon. Her sister, Mary, had previously been the king’s mistress in the 1520s. The court gossiped about her. She is rumored to have a large mole on the side of her neck and an extra finger on her left hand. They also praised her style, wit, charm, vivacious spirit, and dark hair complimented by blue eyes.[12] The Tudor court remained mercurial on its opinion of Mistress Anne.

[Right: Anne's funeral dress (Showtime, 2008)]

Anne had a number of male friends she flirted with, namely Henry Percy and Sir Thomas Wyatt.[13] Anne’s flirtatious attitude and cavorting about the court enticed the king. Henry maintained the utmost piety during his divorce proceedings with Catherine though. Until he could help himself no longer, and Anne conceived before the divorce. According to John Guy, the king let her receive diplomats, hold court, and heaped benefices on her family.[14] In January 1533, Henry and Anne married in secret (and bigamously) at Greenwich Palace. In May, his marriage to Catherine was annulled, and in June, Anne was coronated as queen of England.[15]

Anne promoted Anglicanism and played an active role in court politics. When Anne conceived, the court physicians were confident she would bear a son.[16] Until she bore Elizabeth in September 1533. She miscarried twice thereafter – in 1534 and 1536 – which the king took to mean their marriage was also cursed by God.[17] Already the king was spiraling into tyranny and irascibility, exacerbated by his festering leg wound.[18] He had little tolerance for his outspoken wife. When Anne spoke out of turn concerning the redirection of money to the royal coffers instead of to educational institutions, Henry snapped.[19] Cromwell executed a palace coup, accusing Anne of adultery, incest, and witchcraft.[20] Anne was beheaded at the Tower of London in May 1536.

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Regionalism is in Style -

[Left: Spanish xervillas, c. 1550. New York, Brooklyn Museum Costume Collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art; Right: Spanish borçeguies, c. 1550. New York, Brooklyn Museum Costume Collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art]

Henry’s first two wives were fashion queens who understood the power of image at this time. When the Infanta first arrived in England, she had gobs of shoes. Theresa Earenfight examined records from Isabella of Castile’s household accounts and found the princess brought thirty-six pairs of borçeguies and forty-eight pairs of xervillas hand-crafted by her personal shoemaker.[21] Imagine if Louis Vuitton himself crafted shoes for Kate Middleton; the Infanta was well-connected. She often wore Spanish dresses which complimented the king’s own dress. Eleri Lynn pointed out Catherine began to dress more extravagantly during the legatine trials, asserting her status as queen.[22] Clearly, she felt threatened by Mistress Anne and used dress to reinforce her superior rank.

[Left: Lucas Horenbout. Katherine of Aragon (c. 1525-7), National Portrait Gallery, London; Right: Joos van Cleeve. Königin Eleonore von Frankreich (c. 1530), Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna]

Curiously enough, Catherine’s Spanish influence in Henry’s English court paralleled Eleanor’s Spanish influence in Francis’ French court. Both queens also quarreled with a younger French mistress, as will be addressed later. Eleanor of Austria (1498-1558) happened to be Catherine’s niece. Here, in this locket painting of Catherine and in van Cleeves’ portrait of Eleanor, contemporary audiences see how similar the women were. Catherine wears a crimson velvet gown with a square neckline. Pearls and gems line the edges, matching the two necklaces she wears, one bearing a cross. A Spanish-style hood sits on her head. Similarly, Eleanor wears a floral brocade gown with large slashed sleeves and ermine fur. Jewels encrust her outfit and wrap around her neck. A Spanish-style hood also sits on her head. Both of these women brought Spanish fashion into their respective courts; regionalism enriched their wardrobes.

Catherine’s wardrobe was largely Spanish. Anne’s wardrobe was largely French and expressive of her own personality. Catherine conformed to sumptuary law; Anne pressed her luck with sumptuary law. For example, Lynn notes that Anne wore yellow to Catherine’s funeral.[23] While it was offensive and rather cruel, Anne made a statement: The Spanish Infanta was no more; Anne and her French style had arrived.

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[Far Left: Jean Clouet. Francois I, King of France (1527-30). Louvre Museum, Paris; Left: Hans Holbein the Younger.Whitehall Mural (1537), Queen’s Collection, Hampton Court Palace; Right: Unknown. Anne Boleyn (c. 1533-6), National Portrait Gallery, London; Far Right: Corneille de Lyon. Portait of Anne de Pisseleu d’Heilly (c. 1530), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York]

Anne’s French influence was not new at court, but it is rather curious. As noted in the blog on Henry VIII, he and Francis actively competed for prestige in European politics. They were dressed similarly, almost as if they could have been brothers. Their queens were related; their mistresses could have been sisters too. Take a look at the portrait at right. Anne wears a black velvet gown with a square neckline edged with gems and pearls. Dark fur, perhaps sable, falls over the black sleeves of her gown. She has two pearl necklaces, one featuring a golden pendant of her surname's initial. A French hood with pearl embellishments sits on her head. This pendant is unique for Anne, but not for women at court. Take a look at this portrait of Francis’ mistress, Anne de Pisseleu d’Heilly (1508-80). Like Anne Boleyn, she was in the entourage of the queen, used her influence to better her family, and had a voice at court.[24] Both Anne's became mistresses of their respective kings at the same time too. De Pisseleu's outfit in this portrait by de Lyon is eerily similar to Boleyn's. She wears a dark gown with cloth-of-gold embroidery and a square-shaped neckline. Jewels adorn the hems, the chain around her neck, and her French hood. A pendant of her first initial dangles down the front of her gown. Contemporary audiences should take note not only of the rivalry between France and England, but of the influence both courts had on wardrobes.

Anne de Pisseleu kept her head, despite losing the king’s favor. Anne Boleyn lacked her good fortune. During the queen’s treason trial in 1536, she and her brother were accused of mocking the king’s clothes.[25] Yes, mocking Henry’s wardrobe was an extreme offense and served to show how much meaning was placed on image and sumptuary law in Tudor England. Insult the clothes, and you insult the man. At her execution, Anne wore a mantle of ermine over a loose gown of dark grey damask trimmed with fur and a crimson petticoat. Her ladies removed her headdress on the scaffold, and a white linen coif tumbled down, innocence on the very head that rolled into a basket as the French sword struck true.[26]

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Queens on the Screen -

It is well known that Michael Hirst’s Showtime series The Tudors (2007-10) is hardly more than a costume drama. In the previous blog post, Jonathan Rhys Meyers portrayed a sexy king whose costumes were equally outrageous. The same can be said for many of the costumes worn by Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn. Their respective characterizations are also interesting to look at though. Rhys Meyers embraced a narcissistic and demeaning caricature of the king, but the same cannot be said for these actresses.

[Right: promotional photo of Catherine (Showtime, 2007)]

Maria Doyle Kennedy plays an honest portrayal of Catherine of Aragon. William B. Robison notes that the only deviation made to her character was in refusing to dye Kennedy’s dark hair the rich auburn of the Spanish queen.[27] Other than this physical aspect, Kennedy provided audiences with the devoted Catholic queen indignant with her divorce.[28] Hirst’s judicious devotion to her personality stands out as one of the few characters who convey some measure of historical truth.[29] Kennedy’s acting allows audiences to connect with a beleaguered queen who had no say in her divorce.

[Right: promotional photo of Anne (Showtime, 2007)]

Natalie Dormer plays a hypersexualized Anne Boleyn in Season One, but she grabs the reins in Season Two and provides audiences with a feminist fantasy well-received by audiences.[30] Dormer, who almost was accepted to Cambridge’s history program, researched the queen extensively, convincing Hirst to allow her some freedom in her portrayal of “the king’s whore.”[31]

The duality of the two queens is not a male mindset or modern reimagination. The Protestant-Catholic wars cast Anne as a witch and Catherine as a saint.[32] It has been part of their representation through much of history. But Dormer recognized that Anne could be of the same caliber as saintly Catherine. She stated in an interview with Susan Bordeo: “A woman can be complex, can have ambition, good looks, sexuality, erudition, and common sense.”[33] And Dormer embraced these in her acting.

[Left: Catherine at the joust (Showtime, 2007); Center: Catherine at legatine trial (Showtime, 2007); Right: Catherine at court (Showtime, 2007)]

Joan Bergin executed Catherine’s wardrobe well. Maria Hayward noted that Catherine’s costumes maintain a Spanish flare in the farthingale skirts and dark colors.[34] When Catherine watches Henry joust and ties her favor to his javelin in the season premiere, her dress is keenly Spanish.[35] She wears a rich dress of black and cloth-of-gold, with an ornate hood and long silk train. Keeping in accordance with history, her outfits become more stunning. She parades through court refusing to attend the legatine trial, and she wears a rich cloth-of-gold dress with a red gown embroidered with more cloth-of-gold.[36] The details are stunning and her gorgeous crown reminds courtiers that she is queen. And when Cardinal Campeggio, the papal legate, listens to Catherine’s testimony in the trial, she appears in a brilliant black dress with a pearl-studded forepart complemented by gold-and-black jewels.[37] She is in mourning, she is Spanish, and she is not backing down.

[Top Left: Anne at court (Showtime, 2007); Top Right: Anne in a floral, off-shoulder dress (Showtime, 2007); Bottom Left: Anne and Henry at her coronation (Showtime, 2008); Bottom Right: Anne at her execution (Showtime, 2008)]

Anne’s French wardrobe and the regionalism she fostered fell apart on screen.[38] Dormer’s costumes are not French. They are largely modern with some allusions to French style. In Season One, many of her outfits are colored red for love, wealth, and sexuality. Her pendant sits against her throat, a clear sign that yes, she is the Anne Boleyn everyone whispers about. But when she is away from court, she wears softer colors, such as this floral gown as she converses with a poet.[39] Unlike Henry – who historically loved hats – Anne’s costumes feature a number of hats, though they border on too contemporary in this Renaissance setting. For her coronation, she wears her historic white gown encrusted with pearls and draped in cloth-of-gold.[40] And for her execution, she wears the historic gray-and-plum gown with fur sleeves and white coif.[41] It is a poignant moment deserving a poignant outfit. Like Catherine’s Spanish dresses, Anne goes out in style.

[Top Left: Anne in a sultry dress with no sleeves (Showtime, 2008); Top Center: Anne in an anachronistic riding dress (Showtime, 2008); Top Right: Anne in a gaudy fur ensemble (Showtime, 2007); Bottom Left: Anne in a dress with far too much cleavage (Showtime, 2008); Bottom Center: Anne in a Kentucky Derby hat (Showtime, 2007); Bottom Right: another of Anne's hats (Showtime, 2008)]

Of the two queens, Anne has more historically inaccurate outfits than Catherine. Like Henry’s costumes, they serve as expressions of character more than Henrician sumptuary law. A number of these outfits would have never been worn by the historic Anne Boleyn. They feature low necklines, gaping cleavage, and artistic embellishments that work better on a New York City runway than in Hampton Court. Bergin clearly wanted Dormer to embrace a sexual grouper around the rockstar Henry.

Catherine’s costumes are more vintage compared to Anne’s vogue attire. It seems that Bergin wanted to remain honest to the Spanish styes Catherine wore every day. But for Anne, she wanted to take her French fashion trends and modernize them. It failed to have the desired result. The Tudors did justice to Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn’s characters, but the second wife’s fashion was turned into a runway show. Modern prints, cuts, and styles detracted from the Renaissance narrative and the regionalism these women fostered. Is Anne attending a sixteenth century masquerade or a twenty-first century charity gala? Distinguishing between them through her wardrobe is difficult. Like Henry was turned into a rockstar, Anne Boleyn was turned into a runway model.

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Notes:

[1] Theresa Earenfight, “The Shoes of an Infanta,” Queens of the Middle Ages, last modified August 12, 2014. https://theresaearenfight.com/2014/08/12/the-shoes-of-an-infanta/

[2] Spanish ambassador Capuys, Cardinal Wolsey, Sir Thomas Cromwell, and other male biographers have been accused of inciting this venomous opinion of Queen Anne. Susan Bordeo, “The Tudors, Natalie Dormer, and Our ‘Default’ Anne Boleyn,” in History, Fiction, and The Tudors, ed. William B. Robinson (New York: Palgrave Macmilan, 2016), 80.

[3] Marilee Hanson, “Katharine of Aragon.” English History, last modified February 15, 2015. https://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/catherine-of-aragon/

[4] Ibid.

[5] Ibid.

[6] Ibid.

[7] “If a man shall take his brother’s wife it is an unclean thing…they shall be childless.” Leviticus 20:21. Ibid.

[8] The quarrel began once Pope Clement felt himself tugged between Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Catherine’s nephew, and the King of England, all during the Lutheran Reformation plaguing the empire and Rome. Ibid.

[9] Ibid.

[10] Ibid.

[11] Marilee Hanson. “Anne Boleyn Facts.” English History, lady modified February 6, 2015. https://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/anne-boleyn/

[12] Ibid.

[13] Percy was the son of the earl of Northumberland, and Wyatt was a famous poet. Ibid.

[14] Her father, Viscount Rochfort, was heightened to earl of Wiltshire, a prestigious position the lord relished in. Ibid.

[15] John Guy, The Tudors: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 35.

[16] Taken from a letter to Spanish ambassador Chapuys to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, 10 July 1533. Found in “Anne Boleyn Facts”.

[17] Guy, The Tudors, 35 [18] The wound had been sustained in a jousting accident. Ibid.

[19] There had been other instances of “stepping out of line” from Anne. She was famously vocal at court, possessed sharp intelligence, and often defied the king to his face. She also spent lavish sums of money, egged on by the king, and other courtiers considered her a threat. Ibid.

[20] Anne was accused of kindling relationships with poets and courtiers and for committing incest with her brother, George. As to the witchcraft, the presence of the alleged mole and extra finger were early-modern superstitions of sorcery. Ibid, 37.

[21]Borçeguies are leather shows that come up over the ankles, and xervillas were ornate slippers. Earenfight, “The Shoes of an Infanta”

[22] Eleri Lynn, Tudor Fashion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017), 76.

[23] It should be noted that Henry wore yellow as well, and that Anne had miscarried shortly before Catherine died. Overall, this outfit choice was tacky and out of place in a sea of black mourning clothes. Ibid.

[24] Kathleen Wellman. Queens and Mistresses of Renaissance France (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013), 170.

[25] Ibid., 80.

[26] Ibid.

[27] William B. Robison, “Catherine of Aragon in The Tudors,” in History, Fiction, and The Tudors, ed. William B. Robison (New York: Palgrave Macmilan, 2016), 62.

[28] Ibid., 70

[29] Ibid., 80

[30] Thousands of fans wrote to Dormer after her execution in the Season Two finale. The episode also had an 83% increase in views over the first season finale, and an 11% spike in views from the series premiere. Susan Bordeo, “The Tudors, Natalie Dormer, and Our ‘Default’ Anne Boleyn,” 89

[31] Dormer misunderstood one question on the examination and therefore was ineligible to enter the program. Ibid., 84

[32] Ibid.

[33] Ibid.

[34] Maria Hayward, “Fashionable Fiction,” in in History, Fiction, and The Tudors, ed. William B. Robinson (New York: Palgrave Macmilan, 2016), 301.

[35]The Tudors. “In Cold Blood.” Directed by Charles McDougall and Steve Shill. Written by Michael Hirst. Showtime, April 1, 2007.

[36]The Tudors. “True Love.” Directed by Brian Kirk. Written by Michael Hirst. Showtime, May 6, 2007.

[37]The Tudors. “Truth and Justice.” Directed by Alison Maclean. Written by Michael Hirst. Showtime, May 20, 2007.

[38] Hayward, “Fashionable Fiction,” p. 301.

[39]The Tudors. “Wolsey! Wolsey! Wolsey!” Directed by Steve Shill. Written by Michael Hirst. Showtime, April 15, 2007.

[40]The Tudors. “Checkmate.” Directed by Colm McCarthy. Written by Michael Hirst. Showtime, April 13, 2008.

[41]The Tudors. “Destiny and Fortune.” Directed by Jon Amiel. Written by Michael Hirst. Showtime, June 1, 2008.